UC-NRLF 


13 


REINHAR 


EGH 


iOALi 


Mjji-n-^ 


REESE  LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


"Received  ,  '9° 

Accession  No.      82996     .   Class  No. 


THE  TECHNIC 
OF  MECHANICAL  DRAFTING 


A  PRACTICAL  GUIDE 
TO  NEAT,   CORRECT  AND    LEGIBLE   DRAWING 


BY  CHARLES  W.  RE1NHARDT 

«  • 
CHIEF  DRAFTSMAN  ENGINEERING  NEWS 


FIRST    EDITION 


NEW  YORK : 

THE   ENGINEERING  NEWS  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

1900. 


Copyright  1900 

by 
CHAS.  W.  REINHAKDT. 


PREFACE. 


IN  the  following  pages  the  writer  has  endeavored  to  give  to  the  busy  draftsman  a  thoroughly  practical, 
common-sense  guide  to  good  mechanical  drafting ;  no  attention  whatever  has  been  paid  to  the  mathematics  involved. 

Many  draftsmen,  after  having  carefully  laid  out  their  drawings,  commit  the  error  of  slighting  them  in  the 
execution  ;  sometimes  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  them  all  but  illegible  to  the  men  in  the  shops.  The  construct- 
ing engineer  frequently  finds  himself  handicapped  in  a  similar  manner.  After  wrestling  with  the  meaning  of  portion 
of  a  drawing,  he  finds  that  other  sections  or  elevations  do  not  correspond  with  the  part  first  consulted.  He  has  to 
make  his  own  deductions  and  in  reading  between  the  lines,  as  it  were,  perhaps  finally  arrives  at  some  sort  of  con- 
clusion regarding  the  correct  shape  of  the  parts  outlined  or,  as  a  last  resort,  goes  in  search  of  the  draftsman.  Such 
inconsistencies,  if  they  may  be  termed  so,  unnecessarily  increase  mental  labor  in  reading  and  interpreting  a  design 
and  it  will  be  the  special  province  of  this  book  to  try  to  eradicate  them. 

While  deprecating  any  needlessly  elaborate  finish,  the  writer  advises  the  use  of  just  sufficient  shading  and 
finishing  touches  torender  a  drawing  thoroughly  comprehensible  and  to  preclude  any  possible  ambiguity. 

The  illustrations  in  this  work,  quite  a  number  of  which  have  appeared  in  the  columns  of  "  Engineering  News," 
are  inserted  to  demonstrate  the  points  involved  and  have  been  reduced  more  or  less  in  size  so  as  to  save  space. 
They  may  however  be  copied  by  enlarging  to  about  3  or  4  times  their  linear  dimensions. 

It  is  of  course  to  be  understood,  that  this  book  is  not  a  manual  for  beginners  exactly  ;  it  serves  its  purpose 
best,  where  used  by  the  draftsman  who  is  familiar  with  the  mathematical  principles  of  mechanical  drafting.  It  will 
then,  as  the  writer  hopes,  prove  a  valuable  aid  to  the  rapid  production  of  neat,  correct  and  legible  drawings. 

NEW  YORK,  December,  1899. 

CHAS.  W.  REINHARDT. 


82996 


SYNOPSIS   OF   CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 
General  Instructions. 


Preliminaries;    Ink   

Handling  and  Sharpening  of  Pen. 

Paper;  Tracing  Cloth 

Erasures 

Arrangement  of  Views 


Page. 
1 
1 
2 
2 
3 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Section  Lining. 

Page. 

Definitions;   Current   Style 11 

Black  Sections  12 

Method  of  Execution 13 

Description  of  Standards 13 

Section-Lining  for  Electrical  Drafting.  . .  10 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Map  Drawing. 

Page. 

Shaded  Outlines 25 

Conventions;   Order  of  Procedure 25 

Contour  Lines,  Water  Shading 2ti 

Coast  Hatching  27 

Mountain  Work 27 


CHAPTER  II. 
Outlining. 


Full  and  Broken  Lines. 
Order  of  Procedure. .  . . . 

Lettering 

Borders,  Titles 


CHAPTER  III. 
Outline   Shading. 


Principles 

Relative  Strength  of  Lines. 

Mode  of  Procedure 

Straight  Line  Shading 

Circle  and  Curve  Shading.. 


7 

9 

9 

10 

10 


CHAPTER  V. 
Curved  Surface  Shading. 

Theory;  Procedure 29 

Cylinder  and  Cone  Shading 21 

Shading  of  Elbow 21 

Shading  of  One  Side  Only 22 

Shading  of  Piles  23 

Excessive  Shading 23 

CHAPTER  VI. 
Shading  of  Inclined  Surfaces. 

Light  and  Dark  Sides  Contrasted 23 

Connection   with  Curved  Surfaces 28 

Freehand  Shading  24 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
Character  and  Finish. 

Sketchy  Touches  of  Stone  and  Wood.  ...  28 

Characteristic  Breaks  29 

Shading  of  Rivets  and  Bolts 29 

Shading  of  Screw-Threads 30 

Treatment  of  Architectural  Drawing.  ...  30 

PLATES. 

Standards  for  Section-Lining I.  to  IV. 

Section-Lining  Standards  Applied V. 

Curved  and  Inclined  Surfaces VI.  to  VII. 

Map  Drawing VIII. 

Character  and  Finish..  ..IX.  to  X. 


CHAPTER  I.     GENERAL  INSTRUCTIONS. 


THE  drawing  of  any  object  upon  either  drawing  paper,  tracing 
linen  or  paper  requires  clear  cut,  sharp  outlines  ;  it  is  a  mis- 
take to  suppose  that  very  thin  outlines  give  an  especially  neat 
appearance  to  any  drawing.  Main  outlines  should  always  be 
drawn  with  the  nibs  of  the  ruling  pen  slightly  separated,  which 
"  setting  "  will  give  a  fixed  width  of  line  and  allow  an  uninter- 
rupted flow  of  ink;  when  refilling  the  pen,  care  should  be  taken 
to  readjust  it  to  the  proper  strength  of  line;  to  those  unaccus- 
tomed to  this  somewhat  delicate  task,  the  use  of  a  "duplex  "  pen, 
which  can  be  obtained  from  almost  every  instrument  dealer,  is 
recommended.  This  pen,  as  shown  by  Fig.  i,  opens  with  a  lever, 
and  will,  after  refilling,  yield  the 
same  strength  of  line  as  before.  ^_~-^ — ^ 
In  regard  to  the  ink  to  be  used, 
the  author  would  recommend 


Fig.  1. 


nothing  but  the  "  waterproof "  kind,  a  somewhat  refractory 
medium  to  the  uninitiated ;  but  this  ink  will  not  smudge  or  rub 
off  while  being  handled,  a  quality  which  the  ordinary  inks  do  not 
possess.  After  refilling,  the  pen  should  be  tried  a  couple  of  times 
along  the  grain  of  a  clean  portion  of  the  drawing  board,  or  across 


the  fingers  of  the  left  hand — a  perhaps  objectionable  but  always 
effective  expedient — to  insure  a  "  starting  "  of  the  flow  of  ink. 
The  actual  work  with  the  pen,  owing  to  the  rapid  drying  of  the 
waterproof  quality,  must  of  course  be  commenced  immediately 
afterwards.  A  ruling  pen  with  long,  straight  nibs  will  be  the  most 
satisfactory  instrument  for  working  with  waterproof  ink.  The 
draftsman  choosing  a  pen  should  open  the  same  slightly  and  look 
through  between  the  nibs  against  the  light.  The  two  outer  curves, 


"  a  "  and  "  b  "  (Fig.  2), 

very  flat,  coming  down 

point,      as      illustration 

as  at  "  c  "  and  "  d."  The 

lowed  to  run  out  of  the 

outside  of  the  two  points, 

pen    is    screwed    up    so 

touch,     a     pernicious          pig.  2. 

some    draftsmen    in    the 

lines    can    only    thus    be    obtained. 


the    pen    cut   into   the    surface    of   the 
particles    of    ink    rubbed    off    from    the 


should  in  a  good  pen  be 
to  a  long  and  very  thin 
shows,  and  not  appear 
ink  should  never  be  al- 
slot  and  gather  on  the 
as  will  happen  when  the 
tight  that  the  points 
practice  indulged  in  by 
belief  that  the  very  finest 
In  reality  the  points  of 
paper  and  deposit  the 
outside  of  the  points, 


yielding  thereby  a  faint,  grayish,  ragged  line,  which  will  not 
reproduce  well  either  by  blue-printing  or  photography.  A 
very  good,  black  and  clean-cut  thin  line  can  be  obtained  by  leaving 
the  nibs  just  a  trifle  apart,  which  procedure  will  cause  a  free  de- 
posit of  liquid  ink,  that  will  invariably  reproduce  by  either  of 
[he  processes  mentioned.  The  width  of  the  opening  cannot  be 
given  definitely ;  it  should  vary  according  to  the  style  of  drawing 
and  the  individual  inclination  of  the  draftsman.  The  instrument 
should  be  kept  bright  and  clean  and  never  be  allowed  to  accumu- 
late a  coating  of  dry  ink  at  the  points.  Wipe,  or  if  necessary, 
scrape  off.  All-around  cleanliness  forms  one  of  the  principal 
requisites  for  the  successful  draftsman.  A  worn-down  ruling  pen 
can  be  put  into  proper  trim  again  by  the  draftsman  himself 
through  the  exercise  of  a  little  patience  and  care.  The  pen,  which 
always  wears  off,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  is  applied  to 
the  oilstone,  which  every  draftsman  should  pos- 
sess, and  the  points  ground  off  uniformly  to  the  orig- 
inal rounded  outline  and  of  course  dulled,  as  shown, 
by  passing  the  pen  over  the  stone,  as  if  to  draw  lines 
upon  it,  first  inclined,  then  gradually  rising  to  the 
upright  position.  By  judicious  grinding  of  the  outer 
sides  of  the  two  points  the  requisite  thinness  and  knife- 
edge  is  finally  restored.  A  pen  may  in  this  manner  be 
kept  in  good  repair  a  considerable  length  of  time,  until 
it  is  finally  ground  down  so  far  that  the  thinning  of  the  points 
would  require  too  much  time  to  be  a  paying  operation  any  longer. 
The  paper  to  be  used  may  either  possess  a  fine-grained  or  coarse 
(egg-shell)  surface  ;  special  recommendations  in  that  respect  would 
be  beyond  the  scope  of  this  work ;  tracing  paper  or  tracing  cloth 


Fig.  3. 


Sectional  Plan  A-B. 


Fig.  4. 


can  be  obtained  in  excellent 
quality  from  almost  any 
dealer.  As  regards  the 
most  suitable  side  of  the 
latter  material  to  work 
upon,  the  writer  would  ad- 
vise the  use  of  the  smooth 
or  inner  side  for  various 
reasons,  one  of  which  is 
that  on  the  back  or  un- 
'glazed  side  lines  will  in- 
variably become  ragged  or 
broken,  as  there  is  no  con- 
tinuous surface  for  the 
ruling  pen  to  glide  over. 
Erasures,  furthermore,  are 
almost  impossible  upon 
that  side.  The  inner  or 
smooth  side  presents  a 
glass-like  surface,  which  at 
first  may  not  readily  take 
the  ink ;  a  little  brisk  rub- 
bing with  powdered  pum- 
ice will  somewhat  deaden 
this  gloss  and  admirably 
prepare  the  surface  for  the 
ink.  Some  tracing  cloths 
abound  in  "  leaky  "  spots, 
the  ink  foaking  through  at 


those  places,  especially  where  heavy  lines  are  used.  Such 
blots  can  be  erased  with  a  sharp  penknife  on  the  reverse 
side  after  the  drawing  is  finished.  Ordinary  erasures  on  paper 
are  usually  made  with  the  same  medium,  after  which  a  good 
artist's  rubber  may  be  applied.  Erasures  of  large  sections  of  ink 
lines  or  blotches  on  tracing  cloth  can  be  splendidly  effected  by 
using  pumice  powder,  sprinkled  over  the  parts  to  be  erased ; 
brisk  rubbing  with  the  tip  of  the  index  finger  or  a  medium  rubber, 
while  gradually  replacing  the  discolored  powder  by  fresh  pumice, 
will  quickly  clean  the  part  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be  lettered 
or  drawn  upon  without  the  least  inconvenience ;  the  cloth  has 
retained  its  surface  and  will  not  blot  after  this  treatment.  Smaller 


areas,  as,  for  instance,  a  short  portion  of  a  single  line  close  to 
another,  can  be  treated  in  a  similar  manner  through  a  slit  of  proper 
size  cut  into  a  piece  of  ordinary  writing  paper,  which  covers  and 
protects  the  adjacent  parts. 

In  arranging  the  different  parts  of  a  drawing  on  a  sheet  follow 
the  ordinary  common  sense  rule.  Place  elevation  and  plan  in 
vertical  projection ;  if  a  top  plan,  place  above ;  if  a  bottom  plan, 
below  the  elevation.  If  an  end  elevation  of  the  right  hand  end  of 
the  object  is  to  be  shown,  project  it  from  that  end  of  the  side  ele- 
vation, etc.  Enlarged  details  of  some  parts  can,  where  properly 
captioned,  be  placed  as  "  fillers  "  almost  anywhere.  The  foregoing 
is  to  a  certain  extent  illustrated  by  Fig.  4. 


CHAPTER  II.      OUTLINING. 


Construction  Lines. 


THE  visible  lines  which  define  the  edges  of  any  object  repre- 
sented should,  after  having  been  carefully  penciled  in,  in- 
variably be  drawn  full.    For  construction, 
"  invisible "    or    projection    lines,    where 
such  are  desired  to  be  shown,  dashes  about 
^  inch  long  with  spaces  of  ^  inch  between 
should  be  used.  Two  or  more  parallel  lines 
of  that  order  placed  close  together,  defining, 
for  instance,  the  thickness  of  a  plate,  etc., 


\  i 


It  fo?0  --- 

Dimension  Line. 


"Alternative*  Line. 


should  be  ruled  in  so  as  to  "  break  joints,"  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

Center  lines,  axial  lines,  datum  lines  and  lines  of  section  should 
invariably  be  represented  by  dash  and  dot 
lines,  the  dashes  the  same  distance  apart, 
as  in  construction  lines,  and  the  oblong 
dots  placed  midway  between  dashes.  Such 
lines  should,  for  the  sake  of  distinctness, 
always  begin  and  end  with  a  dot.  Dimen- 
5.  sion  lines  should  consist  of  oblong  dots, 


about    16   or   20   to    the    inch.    A    suitable    blank    space    in   the 

center   should   be   left   for  the   dimension   proper.    As   a   certain 

amount  of  practice  with  the 

ordinary    ruling    pen    is    re- 

quired  before   long  lines   of 

that  order  can  be  drawn  even- 

ly, a   ''  dotting  pen  "   might 

with  advantage  be  employed. 

Lines,   indicating  alternative 

positions  of  an  object,  should 

consist  of  half  length  "  con- 

struction "  dashes  and  spaces 

of  double  their  width.    In  re- 


gard 
and 


to    construction    lines 
especially      dimension 


Fig.  6. 

lines,  the  ordinary  practice  differs  from  the  rules  laid  down 
here,  very  thin  black  ink,  pencil  or  red  ink  lines  being 
employed  to  denote  those  lines.  At  the  same  time  the  ten- 
dency in  using  such  symbols  is  to  give  construction  lines 
a  secondary  character,  and  to  make  dimension  lines  least  promi- 
nent. A  drawing  for  photo-reproduction  therefore,  which  is  exe- 
cuted in  pure  black,  as  it  properly  should,  certainly  ought  to  contain 
such  distinctive  lines  also  in  that  color.  Where  rather  small  objects 
are  to  be  shown  as  "  invisible,"  the  rule  given  for  such  lines  may  be 
modified  and  the  lines  shortened  as  necessary,  so  as  to  outline 
corners  and  distinctive  features,  as  shown  in  Fig.  56.  The  first 
dash  of  projection  lines  proper,  to  which  category  also  the  abut- 
ting lines  between  dimension  lines  belong,  should  never  be  per- 
mitted to  touch  the  full  outline  of  an  object,  as  otherwise  the  con- 


tinuity  of  same  be  interfered  with,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6,  with 
which  Fig.  7,  as  corrected,  is  compared.  When  quite  a  num- 
ber of  broken  lines  are  to  be 
used,  making  a  rather  con- 
fused tangle,  it  will  also  be 
advisable  never  to  let  a  dash 
of  such  line  cross  solid  out- 
lines ;  this  will  have  the  effect 
of  keeping  the  latter  more 
distinct  and  will  aid  the 
reader  of  the  drawing  in 
easily  forming  a  mental  pic- 

Fig.  7. 

ture  of  the  outlined  objects  in  rela- 
tion   to    the    hidden    or    invisible 

parts.    This  point  

is  fairly  well  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  8, 
which  represents 
the  rear  end  of  a 
locomotive.  The 
heavier  outlines, 
which  in  that 
figure  are  shown 
to  heighten  the 
effect  desired,  will 
be  explained  sub- 


10 


sequently.     Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  full 

outlines  show  the  objects  almost  in  relief,  as  it  were, 

the  "  invisible  "  linesr  while  not  interfering  with  the 

full  ones,  are  not  in  the  least  slighted ;  the  roof 

beams  of  the  cab,  the 'stays,  fire  brick  arch  and  the 

rocking  grate  of  the  fire-box,  the  several  levers  with  attachments, 

etc.,  show  very  clearly,  as  if  through  transparent  material. 

A  good  example  of  "  invisible  "  and  "  alternative  "  lines  con- 
trasted is  given  under  Fig.  9,  a  drawing  of  a  folding  car-step ;  the 
latter  kind  of  lines  indicate  graphically  the  parts  folded  up,  as  a 
close  study  of  the  illustration  will  show. 

In  finishing  a  drawing  first  of  all  should  be  drawn  in  the  curves 
that  are  to  be  connected  with  other  lines.  Then  the  horizontal  lines 
or  those  nearly  so  may  be  drawn ;  and  next  the  vertical  and  diago- 
nal ones.  Curved  lines  on  any  part  of  a  drawing  that  are  not  inti- 
mately connected  with  adjacent  parts  may  be  inked  in  at  the  drafts-  ' 
man's  convenience.  Short  portions  of  curves,  which  cannot  easily  be 
matched  by  the  curve  ruler,  afford  valuable  practice  in  freehand 
drawing  and  should  unhesitatingly  be  drawn  in  that  manner,  after 
making  sure  that  the  writing  pen  used  for  such  an  emergency  will 
give  the  requisite  strength  of  line.  A  smooth  joining  of  curves 
with  straight  lines  is  essential.  Small  circles,  such  as  designating 
rivets  or  bolt-heads,  may  in  cases  be  drawn  last  of  all.  Definite 
rules,  however,  to  cover  every  instance  cannot  be  given  here. 

After  the  outlines  of  the  drawing  have  thus  been  secured,  the 
projection  lines  are  ruled  in ;  the  dimension  lines  are  then  placed  be- 
tween them,  leaving  suitable  blank  spaces  for  dimension  numerals. 
If  outline  shading  is  desired,  this  work  will  be  next  in  order, 
beginning  again  with  the  curved  and  horizontal  shade  lines,  and 
continuing  with  the  vertical  and  diagonal  lines. 


11 


The  lettering  of  the  drawing,  plain  directions  for  which  are 
given  in  the  author's  "  Freehand  Lettering,"  is  then  placed;  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  make  it  too  small — a  very  frequent  mis- 
take. The  arrowheads,  which  should  either  be  pointing  outward 
or,  space  lacking,  towards  the  inside  of  the 
dimensions  (Fig.  10)  should  be  put  in  with  t/; •••  yy^my/^KSim'/x'/y-iza^ja 

a  fine  pen  so  as  to  allow  of  a  neat  tapering   wfa- s^"- Jjff-z'Jtftyf 

of  the  two  side  strokes   from   the  point. 
The  descriptive  matter  (inclined  lettering)  F>a-  10- 

should     be     well     distributed ;     indeed,    a     good     draftsman     is 
able  to  combine  the  useful  with  the  artistic  aspect  by  properly 


*37/    W.C.Bundock    80ac. 


Fig.  11. 


arranging    that    kind    of    lettering.    Do    not    slight    captions ; 
every  separate  projection  should  be  named  distinctly  in  upright 


lettering,  as,  for  instance:  Plan,  Elevation,  Transverse  Section, 
Enlarged  Detail  "  C,"  etc.  Not  only  the  general  appearance  of  the 
drawing  is  improved  by  using  specific  captions,  but  additional 
clearness  is  gained.  The  main  title  in  the  lower  right  hand  corner 
of  the  sheet  or  at  its  base  is  placed  after  a  border  line  has  been 
ruled  in.  Make  the  border  consist  of  single  or  perhaps  double 
moderately  heavy  lines ;  the  writer  would  not  recommend  the  use 
of  any  ornate  design  for  borders ;  they  are  as  a  rule  antiquated 
and  take  much  valuable  time  to  construct. 

In  regard  to  the  general  title  of  the  sheet,  few,  if  any,  directions 
will  be  given  here,  as  al- 
most every  book  on  letter- 
ing in  the  market  takes  up 
this  subject  in  a  most  thor- 
ough fashion.  Let  such  a 
title  be  composed  of  simple, 
easily  formed  letters,  pref- 
erably Gothic,  made  con- 
spicuous enough  for  the 
main  appellation  of  the 
subject,  secondary  in  size 
and  body  for  names  of  en- 
gineers, etc.,  and  have  it 
supplemented  by  a  mention 
of  the  scale  of  the  drawing, 
lettered  still  smaller  in  size, 
with  the  actual  scale  at- 
tached. Underlining  of 


Section  A-B. 


words    or   notations    on    a 


Fig.  12. 


12 


drawing  is  bad  practice  and  should  only  be  resorted  to 
after  all  other  distinctions  have  been  exhausted.  The  writer's 
book  on  freehand  lettering  gives  reasonably  fair  examples 
of  Gothic  and  Roman  large  letters  suitable  for  titles ;  while 
Jacoby's  "  Plain  Lettering  "  may  be  recommended  to  those  wish- 
ing to  arrange  their  titles  in  a  scientific  and  accurate  manner  with 
letters  correctly  spaced  and  proportioned.  For  ordinary  purposes, 
however,  the  average  draftsman  is  well  able  to  space  letters  by  eye 
only,  and  make  quite  a  satisfactory  general  arrangement  for  a 
title. 

After  the  drawing  has  been  finished  up  to  this  stage  (outline 


shading  and  lettering  completed),  the  proper  section  lining  and,  if 
desired,  the  graded  line  shading,  indicating  convex  or  concave 
surfaces,  or,  on  a  map,  mountain  shading  and  water  lines,  may  be 
added.  That  style  of  finishing  should,  however,  never  be  allowed 
to  run  across  any  lettering  which  has  previously  been  placed  upon 
such  surfaces,  but  should  be  broken  off,  leaving  minute  clear 
spaces  around  the  letters,  as  shown  in  Figs,  n  and  12.  In  this 
manner  the  descriptive  matter  is  not  interfered  with  in  any  way. 
The  trifling  additional  labor  which  the  taking  of  this  precaution 
entails,  is  well  repaid  by  the  clear  and  tidy  appearance  of  the  re- 
spective parts  afterwards. 


CHAPTER  III.     OUTLINE  SHADING. 


IN  everyday  practice  this  kind  of  shading  is  unfortunately  not 
employed  very  often,  and  upon  some  kinds  of  working  draw- 
ings its  use  would  perhaps  be  a  distinct  disadvantage,  as  the  heavier 
outlines  would  generally  tend  either  to  increase  or  decrease  the 
actual  dimensions  of  an  object  drawn,  which  in  that  case  could 
not  be  correctly  scaled  off,  or  might  tend  to  confuse  small  sections. 
With  sufficient  dimensioning,  however,  a  system  of  shade  lines 
could  very  well  be  employed,  which  would  give  many  drawings  of 
that  sort  a  finished  appearance,  in  which  respect  they  are  sadly 
lacking  in  most  cases.  It  would  furthermore  assist  the  eye  in 


reading  and  interpreting  the  shape  and  proportions  of  parts  at  a 
glance. 

Outline  shading  should  universally  be  employed  on  all  as- 
sembled drawings  and  on  such  sheets  where  it  will  not  interfere 
with  scaling  off  of  dimensions  or  with  black  sections.  Many  drafts- 
men who  are  in  the  habit  of  using  shade  lines  do  not  make  them 
conspicuous  or  decided  enough ;  shade  lines  should,  as  a  rule,  be 
made  about  three  or  four  times  the  strength  of  the  ordinary  out- 
line. 

The  generally  accepted  rule  in  regard  to  shading  is  to  have  the 


13 


light  fall  from  the  upper  left  hand  corner  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees. 
The  shaded  side,  therefore,  would  be  the  diagonally  opposite  one, 


A. 


Fig.  13. 


or  in  a  square  or  oblong  figure  the  side  denoting  its  base,  parallel 
with  the  lower  edge  of  the  drawing  and  its  right  hand  side.  A 
square  opening  within  any  of  those  figures  therefore  will  have  to 
be  shaded  the  reversed  way,  or  at  the  top  and  left  hand  side.  As- 
suming the  square  to  be  set  on  one 
angle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  I3A.  only  the 
under  side,  which  is  located  at  right 
angles  to  the  assumed  rays  of  light, 
would  have  to  be  shaded,  while  the 
opening  within  would  have  its  oppo- 
site side  so  treated.  At  the  same 
time,  as  the  reader  will  perceive, 
something  seems  to  be  amiss  with 
that  shading.  Let  us  therefore 
deviate  just  a  trifle  from  the  ortho- 
dox rule  and  apply  the  remedy:  Add 
one-half  or  ore-third  the  regular 
width  of  a  shade  line  to  the  lower  left  hand  outline  of  the  square 
and  the  upper  right  hand  side  of  the  opening  and  the  drawing 


Fig.  14. 


("  B  "),  as  well  as  the  one  showing  the  square  tilted  slightly 
towards  the  right  (''  C  ")  and  treated  in  a  reversed  manner,  appears 
finished  correctly. 

Shading  of  circles  or  circular  openings  is  generally  effected  by 
shading  the  semicircle  below  a  45° 
diameter  for  the  former  and 
above  for  the  latter,  the  shading 
tapering  and  merging  into  the 
light  part  at  the  ends  of  the  45° 
diameter,  or  (better)  a  little  be- 
yond, as  shown  graphically  by 
Fig.  14.  The  improvement  in  ap- 
pearance gained  by  following  this  latter  method  is  made  fairly 
clear  by  comparing  "  A  "  and  "  B,"  Fig.  15. 

Shade  lines  should  nearly  always  be  placed  at  the  outside  of  the 
outlines  of  an  object;  there  are  cases,  though,  where  by  strictly 
adhering  to  this  rule  the  symmetry  of  an  object  would  suffer,  or 


Fig.  15. 


B. 
(Incorrect.)  (Correct)  (Incorrect) 

Fig.   16. 

where,  again,  it  would  appear  as  if  notches  were  cut  into  a  straight 
outline.  In  such  cases  it  becomes  necessary,  of  course,  to  place 
such  shade  lines  against  the  inner  edge  of  the  outline.  Such  ex- 
ceptional instances  are  illustrated  and  contrasted  in  Fig.  16. 


14 


Ordinarily  the  strength  of  full  shade  lines  should  be  made  uni- 
form. Imagine  for  an  exception,  however,  a  simple  side  elevation 
of  a  plate  girder.  If  the 
full  strength  shading 
were  given  to  the  over- 
hanging top  cover  plate 
of  the  upper  flange  it 
would  entirely  fill  up  the 
thickness  of  the  hori- 
zontal flange  of  the  top 
angle.  In  such  a  case  a 
reduction  in  strength  of 
that  shade  line  to  about 
one-third  regular  width 
is  advised.  The  lower 
edge  of  the  flange  of  the 
angle  mentioned,  out- 
lined against  a  compara- 
tively wider  space,  may 
receive  the  full  strength 
of  shading.  Another  in- 
stance, if  such  may  be 
quoted,  is  the  shading  of 
the  ropes  in  a  drawing 
of  a  derrick,  perhaps, 
which  shaded  full 
strength  would  appear 
too  clumsy.  Such  dis- 
tinctions are  best  to  be  Verticol  Section 

Fig.  17. 


Plan 


/g,7f 


'.'••••.'.::::  '•]:•£: 


left,  however,  to  the  individual  taste  of  the  draftsman.  In  Fig.  17 
straight,  tapering  shade  lines  are  employed  ;  here  are  indicated  in  a 
graphic  manner  the  slanting  surfaces  of  the  ribs  of  a  manhole-cover 
frame.  Under  certain  conditions  the  actual  shadow  thrown  by  this 
object  would  corre- 
spond with  our  out-  A 
line  shading  shown 
here.  The  tapered 
shading  of  curved  out- 
lines, as  shown  by  Fig. 
18,  is  governed  by 
principles  similar  to 
those  given  for  circles 
and  circular  openings. 
The  eye,  when  proper- 
ly trained,  will  be  able 
to  determine  the  point 
of  merging  from  the 
tapering  shade  to  the 
light  outline. 

Ordinarily  the  shading  of  a  straight  line  is  effected  by  placing 
the  edge  of  the  rule  a  trifle  below  it,  the  pen  is  opened  slightly 
wider,  and  a  line  ruled  parallel  to  the  one 
to  be  shaded ;  the  pen  is  then  inclined  some- 
what towards  the  draftsman,  and  in  this  posi-  ^~~~~~ 
tion  will  usually  fill  the  space  between  the 

two  lines  by  one  application.  If  it  is  found  sometimes  that  the  pen 
fills  the  space  to  be  inked  by  a  narrow  margin,  a  slight  turning  of 
the  inclined  pen  towards  the  right  between  the  thumb  and  the  in- 


Section  A-B. 


15 


dex  finger  will  widen  the  resulting  ink  line  and  make  it  fully 
adhere  to  the  two  lines,  thereby  rilling  the  space.  Where  a  hori- 
zontal shade  line  is  to  be  joined  by  another  shade  line  at  any  given 
angle,  run  the  first  line  a  trifle  beyond  the  joint,  as  shown  at  right 
side  of  Fig.  19.  The  vertical  shade  line 
may  then  be  joined  to  the  extreme  end 
of  the  horizontal  one,  and  obviously  a 
clean  sharp  corner  in  the  shading,  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  otherwise,  will  result. 
For  shade  lines  of  medium  strength  the 
pen  is  set  a  trifle  wider,  and  the 
shade  line  ruled  so  close  to  the  outline 
as  to  make  it  adhere  there.  The  corners 
in  such  a  case  need  special  attention 
In  shading  the  straight  tapering  lines 
shown  in  Fig.  17,  the  edge  of  the  rule  is 
set  parallel  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  intended  shade  line  and  ihe 
heavier  end  is  invariably  commenced  with.  For  circle  shading,  the 
full  shade  line  (see  Fig.  20)  is  first  filled  in  with  the  pen  of  the  com- 
passes in  the  same  order  as  given  for  the  straight  line  shading  (i.  e., 
draw  a  parallel  line  below,  in  this  case  a  concentric  arc,  the  ensuing 
space  to  be  filled  in  by  a  second  or  third  application).  The  taper- 
ing ends,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines  in  the  figure,  are  then  put  in 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  21. 


freehand,  by  beginning  in  either  case  from  the  ends  of  full 
lines  and  working  the  ink  carefully,  while  yet  moist,  towards  the 
merging  points.  This,  after  a  little  preliminary  practice,  can  very 
neatly  be  done  by  the  average  draftsman  with 
the  ordinary  No.  303  Gillott's  pen.  A  better 
method,  although  one  requiring  more  practice, 
a  deft  hand  and  thorough  knowledge  of  the  in- 
strument, is  illustrated  diagrammatically  in  Fig. 
21.  Here  the  radius  is  left  unchanged;  the 
shading,  as  indicated  by  dotted  lines,  is  effected 
by  gradually  springing  the  compasses  or  prefer- 
ably bow  pen,  from  merging  point  to  merging 
point ;  a  slowly  increasing  pressure  at  first,  maximum 
pressure  for  full  portion  and  gradually  decreasing  pres- 
sure either  from  or  towards  the  center,  as  the  case  may  be, 
will  produce  in  perhaps  two  applications  the  strength  desired. 
The  relative  intensity  of  the  required  pressure  is  indicated  on  our 
diagram  by  differing  lengths  of  arrows.  As  mentioned,  a  certain 
amount  of  practice  is  necessary  before  this  method  can  safely  be 
employed  upon  an  actual  drawing.  The  shading  of  portions  of 
circles  is  to  be  effected  also  by  springing  the  compasses  until  the 
heaviest  part  becomes  equal  in  width  and  merges  into  the  adjoin- 
ing shaded  or  light  lines. 


16 


UNIVERSITY 
CALIFO* 


CHAPTER  IV.     SECTION  LINING. 


SECTION  lines  should  always  be  employed  where  it  is 
desired  to  represent  any  object  as  cut  by  a  plane 
and  where  the  parts  intervening  between  the  observer 
and  the  plane  of  section  are  removed.  An  omission  of 
the  proper  sectioning  or  "  hatching "  will  result  in  an 
unsatisfactory  drawing  and  will  sometimes  make  it  entirely 
incomprehensive,  as  the  reader  of  such  drawing  in  trying  to  in- 
terpret it  has  mentally  to  supply  the  missing  tints,  a  very  trying 
and  at  times  irritating  task.  Some  draftsmen  again,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  in  the  habit  of  tinting  or  hatching  all  materials  repre- 
sented in  the  drawing,  making  no  distinction  between  surfaces  in 
section  and  such  as  are  in  elevation ;  a  proceeding  which,  entail- 
ing as  it  does,  a  considerable  amount  of  unnecessary  work,  will 
make  matters  even  worse,  as  far  as  the  legibility  of  a  drawing  is 
concerned.  It  is  of  course  well  to  make  some  concessions  in  this 
matter,  as  for  instance,  a  few  courses  of  brick  or  stone  may  be 
suggested  on  an  elevation  of  a  wall,  so  as  to  give  relative  size  of 
adjoining  objects,  or  to  show  the  kind  of  bond  used,  etc.  This 
point  will,  however,  be  treated  more  in  detail  further  on. 

The  color  tinting  of  sections  employed  in  some  establishments 
instead  of  the  pure  black  section  lining  allows,  when  consistently 


placed,  of  a  very  good  mental  picture  of  the  part  so  treated,  and  the 
tints  will  readily  suggest  themselves:  neutral  tint  for  cast  iron, 
blue  for  wrought  iron  or  steel,  yellow  for  brass,  brown  for  earth, 
Indian  red  for  brick,  etc.  When  used  on  a  tracing,  however,  the 
different  colors  cease  to  be  distinct  on  a  blue  print  made  there- 
from, with. the  sole  exception  perhaps  that  the  actinic  value  of 
some  of  the  colors  may  render  those  more  prominent  than  the 
rest.  For  photo-reproductive  purposes  in  black  and  white  a  tinted 
drawing  is  also  useless,  as  some  of  the  washes  would  reproduce  as 
a  muddy  gray  or  black,  others  be  entirely  lost.  Therefore  it  is  the 
writer's  opinion  that  all  drawings  for  photographic  reproduction 
should  be  finished  up  in  pure  black. 

In  drawing  and  finishing  a  section  of  any  object  the  draftsman 
very  properly  should  assume  the  "  near  "  portion  cut  off  by  the 
plane  of  section  as  being  actually  detached ;  the  "  off  "  portion 
thus  remaining  should  be  treated  solely  and  faithfully  under  this 
assumption,  hatching  all  such  parts  as  are  cut  by  the  plane  men- 
tioned, and  leaving  the  unaffected  ones  severely  alone.  These  few 
points  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly,  as  very  many  draftsmen 
are  sadly  deficient  in  consistently  following  out  such  conditions 
assumed.  An  almost  pathetic  instance  of  erring  in  that  respect  is 


17 


presented  in  our  Fig.  22  "  A,"  and  the  proper  treatment  of  the 
parts  involved  is  demonstrated  in  "  B  "  alongside. 

Before  intro- 
ducing the  stand- 
ards of  section 
lining  defined  be- 
low, it  may  be 
stated,  that  in 
cases  where  no 
mistakes  regard- 
ing different  ma- 
terials employed 
are  possible,  or 
where  names  of 
materials  are  let- 
tered on  respec- 
t  i  v  e  surfaces, 
there  cannot  exist  any  reasonable  objection  to  the  use  of  a  simple 
diagonal  hatching  across  all  portions  which  appear  in  section. 
In  fact,  this  method  sometimes  possesses  advantages  of  its  own. 

'I  he  standards  of  section  lining  presented  in  the  following  have 
been  employed  and  in  parts  evolved  by  the  writer  while  in  the 
drafting  department  of  "  Engineering  News ;''  the  metal  sections 
given  are  almost  identical  with  the  ones  used  by  the  Bureau  of 
Steam  Engineering  of  the  U.  S.  Navy  Department.  For  the 
materials  most  often  recurring  the  simplest  method  of  section 
lining  has  been  chosen ;  the  relative  density  and  probable  texture 
of  the  materials  has  also  been  taken  into  account.  If,  while  using 
the  standard  metal  sections  given  here,  the  draftsman  should 


A. 


happen  to  be  in  need  of  an  additional  one,  as,  for  instance,  phos- 
phor-bronze, he  may,  by  adding  an  appropriate  set  of  lines  (per- 
haps vertical)  to 

honnel.  ^^afcaD  the  symbol  given 

,»_jri*>-  H!*«'  for  bronze,  evolve 
thereby  a  new  dis- 
tinction, and  still 
indicate  its  rela- 
tionship, or  he 
might  prefer  to 
use  the  relative 
s  y  m  b  o  1  given 
here  and  letter 
on  the  modified 
name.  Similar 
instances  might 
be  quoted,  where 
a  like  expedient  can  be  adopted.  For  all  ordinary  purposes,  how- 
ever, the  writer  deems  the  tables  given  complete  in  every  respect. 


m 


Fig.  23. 


( '  Pi,  so"'j' , 

\eriaf eft  i 

(Z  "  I5$ 


The  section  lining  on  all  metal  surfaces  shown  in  conjunction 
with  masonry  sections  should  be  made  about  twice  as  close  as  the 


18 


latter,  giving  those  a  somewhat  darker  tint  and  rendering  them 
distinctly  "  metallic." 

In  drawing  for  ordinary  building  or  bridge  construction,  the 
accepted  practice  is  to  show  all  metal  sections,  as  in  Fig.  23,  in 
black.  The  lines  between 
the  different  thicknesses  of 
sections  are  here  indicated 
by  faint  white  spaces, 
which  should,  where  such 
thicknesses  continue  purely 
in  elevation,  be  likewise 
continuations  of  the  black 
dividing  lines,  somewhat 
tedious  to  construct,  since 
a  white  space  between  such 
thicknesses  represents  two 
separate  outlines.  In  draw- 
ings also  where  a  single 
principle  of  construction, 
such  as  shown  in  Fig.  24 
(oil-filter),  is  to  be  illus- 
trated, thin  metal  sections 
very  appropriately 


are 


shown  in  solid  black.   In  all 
such  cases,  however,  care 


Fig.  24. 


must  be  taken  never  to  let  the  shaded  outlines  interfere 
in  such  a  way  that  they  might  be  mistaken  for  black  sec- 
tions. For  this  purpose  shade  lines  of  one-half  the  regular 
strength  may  be  employed,  which  even  may  be  thinned  down 


where  they  occur  in  proximity  to  the  black  sections ;  or  other  ex- 
pedients may  be  adopted  in  such  a  case ;  that  is,  the  sections  may 
either.be  slightly  increased  in  width  or  shading  be  left  off  alto- 
gether. 

The  distinctive  metal  sections,  shown  on  plate  I.,  and  the  differ- 
ent masonry  sections  on  plate  II.,  may  be  executed  mechanically 
— with  section  liner  and  ruling  pen.  From  past  experience  the 
writer  has,  however,  lost,  faith  in  all  mechanical  devices  for  doing 
this  class  of  work — none  work  satisfactorily,  and  they  cannot 
supplant  the  steady  hand  and  alert  eye  of  the  trained  draftsman. 
A  unique  little  home-made  affair,  described  by  L.  F.  Ronclinella 
in  his  paper  "  Rapid  Meth- 
ods in  Instrumental  Draw- 
ing," is  certainly  cheap. 
In  the  following  the  de- 
scription in  his  own  words 
is  given,  and  the  illustra- 
tion, Fig.  25,  attached: 

"  A    very    good    device,    ^ 
and  one  that  has  long  been    ^ 
used     in     some     drafting  Fig.  25. 

rooms,  can  be  made  out  of  a  soft-wood  straight-edge,  about 
one-eighth  inch  thick  (c.  g.,  a  penny  ruler)  and  two  pins,  to 
be  used  with  a  triangle  and  against  a  T-square  blade.  One  side  of 
the  triangle  is  placed  against  the  upper  edge  of  the  soft  wood  on 
the  paper,  so  that  an  adjacent  side  forms  the  angle  desired  for 
the  hatchings,  and  the  pins  are  driven  into  the  edge  so  that  the 
corners  of  the  triangle  can  strike  against  them,  the  distance  be- 
tween the  pins  being  equal  to  the  side  of  the  triangle  plus  the  de- 


Saft  Wait  Straight  Edge 
T-  square  Blade 


19 


sired  distance  between  the  hatchings.  To  use  this  device,  the 
lower  edge  of  the  so.ft  wood  is  placed  against  the  upper  edge  of  the 
T-square  blade,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  With  the  triangle  against 
the  left-hand  pin,  a  line  is  drawn  along  its  right-hand  edge ;  the 
triangle  is  still  held  firm,  and  the  straight  edge  is  slid  to  the  left 
until  stopped  by  the  right-hand  pin ;  the  straight-edge  is  then  held 
firm,  and  the  triangle  slid  up  to  the  left-hand  pin ;  a  second  line 
is  then  drawn,  and  this  process  is  repeated  until  the  section  surface 
is  covered  with  equidistant  lines.  After  a  little  practice,  work  can 
be  done  very  rapidly  with  this  device,  and  the  eyes  are  not  strained 
to  judge  the  distance  between  the  lines." 

Section  lining  by   eye   requires   practice   and   a    steady   hand ; 
avoid  at  the  beginning  of  the  work  too  close  a  spacing,  an  error 

which  very  many  draftsmen  com- 
mit ;  start  with  the  ordinary  out- 
line strength  in  a  45°  diagonal  di- 
rection with  moderately  large 
spacing  ;  after  every  10  or  12  lines 
filled  in  glance  back  over  the  com- 
pleted area,  so  as  to  gradually  cor- 
rect any  deviation  towards  nar- 
rowing or  widening  spaces.  If 
you  notice  that  a  line  just  ruled  is  spaced  too  far  from  the  last  one 
rectify  by  purposely  ruling  the  next  line  too  near,  and  vice  versa, 
assuming  immediately  afterwards,  however,  the  normal  width  of 
spacing.  In  this  manner  an  even  "coloring"  of  the  section-lined 
surface  can  be  maintained.  This  is  made  clear  by  referring  to  Fig. 
26,  showing  an  evenly  hatched  surface,  where  nevertheless  "a"  and 
"c"  indicate  too  narrow  and  too  wide  spaces  respectively,  which 
are  rectified  by  subsequent  spaces,  "b"  and  "d,"  as  related  above. 


Fig.  26. 


.-Attachment  for  Operating 
Rod  of  Feed  Hopper, 


Feed  Aperture 


BetrPulle) 

for 
Automatic 


'////////////////////////^ 

Fig.  27. 


20 


For  very  rapid  work,  the  writer  employs  the  medium  sized  45° 
triangle,  using  its  hypothenuse  as  working  edge ;  the  90°  point  is 
raised  and  the  left  thumb  placed  under  same,  while  the  four  re- 
maining fingers  of  that  hand  slightly  extended,  serve  moderately 
to  press  the  ruling  edge  down ;  the  triangle,  sliding  only  on  the 
lower  edge  of  its  hypothenuse,  responds  to  the  slightest  motion. 
The  parallel  position  of  the  lines,  of  course,  becomes  more  or  less 
problematical ;  for  the  writer  believes,  while  fully  realizing  the 
consequences  of  being  considered  a  confirmed  heretic,  that  truly 
parallel  lines  are  not  essen- 
tial in  section-lining  as 
long  as  an  even  tone  of  the 
hatched  surface  is  obtained 
by  the  means  outlined 
above. 

With  small  or  narrow 
areas  of  sections  the  author 
takes  the  liberty  of  doing 
them  freehand  altogether, 
and  there  is  no  reason  why 
a  draftsman  possessed  with 
a  steady  hand  cannot 
neatly  cross-hatch  a  nar- 
row strip  with  an  ordinary 
pen.  For  doing  this  class 

of  work  on  transparent  material  the  detached  sheet  of  "  Rein- 
hardt's  Lettering "  placed  under  that  part  of  the  drawing 
may  be  found  quite  useful  in  giving  spacing  and  direction  of 
lines,  etc.  Adjacent  areas  should  receive  section  lines  in  opposite 


direction ;  where,  however,  the  section-lining  of  three  or  more 
areas  adjoins,  30°  ruling  may  in  addition  be  resorted  to  as  shown 
by  Fig.  27. 

In  regard  to  section-lining  brick  or  stone,  as  on  plate  II.,  the 
writer  would  promulgate  another  pet  heresy:  these  materials 
never  show  up  so  well  as  when  a  narrow  strip  against  the  lighted 
sides  of  the  respective  areas  is  left  open,  thereby  enhancing  the 
effects  of  light  and  shade ;  the  time  expended  in  ruling  in  the 
necessary  pencil  lines  defining  such  spaces  is  well  paid  for  by  the 
improved  appearance  of  the  sections  after- 
wards. The  section-lining  for  stone,  as 
the  denser  material  should,  as  shown,  be 
ruled  with  pen  set  for  about  one-half  the 
strength  of  a  shade  line.  Still  further  dis- 
tinction in  this  respect  may  sometimes 
be  indulged  in,  as  our  Fig.  28  shows. 
Here  the  light  effects  on  the  edges  of 
the  separate  stones  are  perhaps  uncalled  for ;  they  might  have 
been  produced  at  the  top  and  left  hand  side  only,  the  masonry 
being  thus  treated  as  a  whole.  In  the  case  of  coursed  masonry 
the  separate  courses  are  generally  not  indicated,  although  in  some 
instances  it  may  be  desirable  to  do  so.  In  "  broken  stone  "  and 
"  concrete  "  (plate  II.)  the  separate  stones  should  be  shown  an- 
gular in  shape.  Have  the  rip-rap  stones  neatly  overlapping. 
Broken  stone  can  be  shown  by  placing  each  stone  sepa- 
rately. When  it  is  desired  to  show  same  tightly  packed,  as 
for  ballast  in  a  roadbed,  another  method,  as  shown  by  Fig.  29,  may 
be  employed:  Draw  sinuous  courses,  sometimes  parallel,  some- 
times converging,  the  distance  generally  being  equal  to  the  de- 


Fig.  29. 


21 


sired  size  of  the  stones,  and  then  put  in  cross-strokes  at  different 

angles.    The  stones  and  gravel  in  "  concrete  "  should  always  be 

shown   shaded ;   the  outlines   can 

neatly  and  quickly  be  constructed 

with   a   single  continuous   stroke 

and  varying  pressure  of  the  pen, 

as  shown  in   Fig.  30.    Throw  in 

the  stones  at  random ;  then  fill  in 

•sparingly  between  these  with  the 

heavy,    irregularly    shaped    dots, 

occasionally  putting  in  a  smaller 

stone     where     needed.       Finally 


Of  ^C 

Broken  Stone.  Gravel. 

Fig.  30. 


even  up  the  tint  of  the  whole  by  placing  the  small  dots,  indicating 
particles  of  cement,  which  will,  when  judiciously  placed,  supply 


should  of  course  receive  rounded  outlines,  and  can  be  quickly 
constructed,  as  shown.  For  the  placing  of  the  heavy  black  dots 
in  "  cinder  concrete  "  a  heavy  lettering  pen  may  be  used ;  each 
dot  to  be  produced  by  a  single  application. 

In  all  these  and  the  following  freehand  sections 
the  .tint  should  be  carried  closely  against  the 
"  light  "  outlines,  unless  some  other  dark  tinted 
section  is  joined  at  those  sides,  when  narrow  open 
spaces  should  be  left,  analagous  to  rules  to  be  ob- 
served in  making  masonry  sections.  (Observe 
"  loam  "  and  "  puddle  "  sections  against  "  filling  " 
and  "  crushed  stone  "  sections,  etc.,  Fig.  31.) 

"  Gravel  "   is,   wherever  occurring   in    the   following   sections, 
never  shaded,  so  as  to  avoid  any  of  its  compounds,  such  as  "  sand 

and  gravel,"  be- 
ing mistaken  for 
concrete.  The 
symbol  for 
"  sand  "  can  with 


Fig.  32. 


Clayey  Material 
~~    and  travel, 
in  Layers. 


^ff^^^taTfff^EW^ 


Section    through     Inflow    Pipe. 
Fig.  31. 


the  necessary  finish  to  the  section,  and  make  it  resemble  the  real          a  little  practice  be  evenly  placed  by  connecting  groups  of  dotted 
material    pretty    closely.      In    "  gravel     concrete "    the    gravel          circular  arcs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  32. 


22 


Water  in  repose  (plate  III.)  may  be  represented  in  two  ways,  as 
the  exigencies  of  the  case  may  demand ;  by  graded  solid  lines,  de- 
creasing in  strength  as  their  spacing  increases,  or  by  evenly 
spaced,  uniformly  broken  lines.  The  latter  method  is  employed 
for  showing  "  oil  "  in  Fig.  24,  and  it  answers  very  well  for  con- 
trasting the  two  liquids  shown  in  that  illustration. 

Earth  is  indicated  by  series  of  short  parallel  strokes,  about  4  or 
6  in  a  bunch,  constantly  changing  in  direction.  Where  only  a 
narrow  strip  of  an  earth  section,  such  as  under  a  foundation,  is 
to  be  indicated,  a  neat  way  of  toning  it  down  in  color  is  suggested 
in  Fig.  33,  which  shows  the  three  stages  of  drawing  the  section. 
As  will  be  noticed  the  strokes  in  the  first  stage  are  made  tapering 

downwards  and  placed 
closest.  "  Earth  filling  " 
(plate  III.)  can  be  shown 
by  disconnected  parallel- 
lined  bunches  interspersed 
with  dots,  showing  a  gen- 
erally broken-up  texture.  In  drawing  the  symbol  for  "  bed 
rock  "  it  will  first  be  necessary  to  throw  in  the  heavier 
dividing  lines,  indicating  seams,  before  the  actual  filling-in 
can  be  commenced.  Make  those  tapering,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34, 
and  irregular  in  direction  and  length ;  some  extending  and  break- 
ing up  at  a  little  distance  out.  Where  quite  a  deep  section  of  rock 
is  required  lateral  seams  may  be  put  in  additionally,  as  shown  at 
"  3."  In  filling  between  seams  by  sets  of  parallel  lines  their  direc- 
tion should  change  as  abruptly  as  possible  between  the  different 
sets.  In  showing  stratified  rock,  horizontal  seams,  or  nearly  so, 
should  be  predominant,  except  in  a  case  where  a  dip  of  the  strata 


3d. 


2d. 
Fig.  33. 


1st. 


occurs,  when  naturally  the  seams  must  be  drawn  so  as  to  repre- 
sent that  inclination.  If  any  filling-in  at  all  is  desired,  it  may  be 
done  sparingly  against  the  edge.  , 

The  "  undefined  "  symbol  might  indicate  either  bed      J^^ 
rock,  earth  or  sand  ;  it  is  with  advantage  employed    /\ 
where  the  actual  ma-  ,       .„....,„  _______________     _______          X  ---- 

ara":HllllllteM^=31u<ai™IHIHUiP*»WlmT«n«=_«<   V 

tenal  is  not  definitely 
known,  and  is  exe- 
cuted, as  shown  on 
plate,  by  wavy,  free- 
hand lines. 


In  showing  "  pud- 


F'9'  34- 


die  "  section  on  same  plate  the  horizontal  strokes  may  be  done 
either  freehand  or  by  rule ;   they  should    however,   break  joint 

neatly;  the  same  may 
be  said  of  the  symbol 
for  "  silt,""  where  the 
shorter  dashes  should 
be  pretty  closely 
placed.  "  Cement,"  as 
distinguished  from 
"  sand,"  is  shown  with 
large  and  small  dots. 
Where  drawing  some 
of  the  geological  sym- 
bols contained  on  plate 

Transverse  Section.  -  . 

p.     35  IV.  throw   in   for  in- 

stance "  boulders  "  at 
first  at  random,  "  cobbles  "  or  "  gravel  "  afterwards  as  fillers. 


23 


Cross-sections  of  wood  shown  on  same  plate,  to  be  done  free- 
hand of  course,  should  always  represent  circular  arcs ;  where 
complete  "  rings  "  are  drawn,  have  them  as  nearly  circular  as 
possible;  increase  spacing  from  the  core  outwards  in  slightly 
wavy  lines.  The  drying  cracks  or  "  checks,"  which  are  one  of  the 
principal  characteristics  of  the  transverse  wood  section,  should 
be  made  nearly  radial ;  a  little  critical  study  of  the  sawed-off  end 
of  a  timber  will  be  helpful.  Fig.  35,  appended  herewith,  shows  a 
cross-section  of  a  timber  electric  conduit,  and  is  a  pretty  fair 
specimen  in  show- 
ing the  grain  of  the 
different  portions. 

Longitudinal  sec- 
tions of  wood  are 
generally  drawn  by 
wavy  lines  fairly 
evenly  spaced.  If 
more  refinement  is 
desired,  the  study 
of  the  texture  of  a 
planed  pine  board 
may  be  advisable. 
As  shown  by  Fig. 
36,  a  judicious  plac- 
ing of  a  few  solid 
blacks  by  back  and 
forward  strokes  of 
the  pen,  parallel 

with  the  axis  of  the  timber,  will  produce  the  desired  effect.    The 
writer  deems  it  unnecessary  to  adopt  different  kinds  of  graining  for 


Transverse  Section  L-L. 


sections  of  various  specimens  of  timber ;  distinctness  in  that  direc- 
tion may  be  attained  by  lettering  on  the  relative  names. 

Additional  specimens  of  geo- 
logical symbols  are  given  on 
plate  V.  in  "  sections  of  well 
borings:"  note  how  increase 
in  density,  signifying  increas-  g' 

ing  hardness  of  the  "  red  sandstone  "  in  the  first  boring,  may  be 
represented  in  such  a  case. 

The  portion  of 
"  covered  filter  bed 
section  "  on  plate  V. 
shows  successive 
layers  of  filtering 
materials ;  different 
sizes  of  filter  gravel 
may  be  designated 
as  shown ;  observe 
how  the  light  strip  at 
the  base  of  the  two 
upper  layers  of  that 
material  enhances 
clearness.  The  sym- 
bol for  "sand"  is 
only  filled  in  down- 
wards some  distance 

Fig.  37.  from    the    edge    for 

reasons     of    saving 

time ;  the  effect  produced  thereby  is  better  than  a  carefully  worked- 
over  whole  surface  could  be. 


L  M 

Longitudinal      Section. 


24 


On  the  "  manhole-section  "  introduced  on  the  same  plate  every 
material  shows  so  distinctively,  that  the  descriptive  matter  was 
totally  dispensed  with  on  that  drawing.  The  sections  of  the  vit- 
rified pipe  were  here,  for  exceptional  reasons,  left  entirely  white. 

As  the  drawings  of  more  recent  electrical  constructions  are  as  a 
rule  inconsistently  treated  and  therefore  hard  to  understand,  the 
writer  thought  it  expedient  to  insert  under  Fig.  37  two  sections  of 
an  electric  motor.  In  ordinary  electrical  drafting,  as  well  known, 
no  distinction  is  made  between  parts  of  laminations  "  A  "  in  sec- 
tion or  in  elevation.  In  our  drawing  this  point  is  strictly  main- 
tained. The  exact  thickness  or  the  number  of  those  plates  is,  of 
course  not  given,  and,  if  necessary,  such  information  may  be 
lettered  alongside.  Insulations  are  shown  black  (where  in  section), 


although  the  ordinary  electrical  draftsman  generally  puts  in  all 
insulating  material  in  that  color,  whether  shown  in  section  or  ele- 
vation. 

The  drawing  from  which  our  illustration  was  copied,  indicated 
the  actual  courses  of  the  wires,  presumably,  in  the  circumferential 
coils  "  F  "  in  cross-section  by  horizontal  and  vertical  lines,  and  the 
horizontal  section  of  coil  "  F  "  showed  concentric  rings  corre- 
sponding with  the  horizontal  joints.  This  arrangement,  though 
perhaps  unnecessary,  was  faithfully  copied,  so  as  to  make  a  con- 
cession to  existing  notions  upon  the  subject.  In  order,  however,  to 
show  those  parts  clearly  as  section,  a  diagonal  set  of  lines  was 
added,  which,  although  at  variance  with  existing  practice,  was 
the  only  consistent  way  to  treat  the  portions  involved. 


CHAPTER  V.     CURVED  SURFACE  SHADING. 


THE  portions  of  a  drawing  which  represent  curved  surfaces 
may  be  executed  either  by  graduated  tinting  (wash) 
with  water  colors  or  by  line  shading.  The  latter  process, 
which  will  be  described  in  detail  below,  requires,  if 
properly  carried  out,  considerable 
practice  and  skill.  The  style  of  cyl- 
inder shading  very  often  used  by  some 
draftsmen,  is  shown  by  Fig.  38  A,  and 
looks  exceedingly  neat,  where  no  out- 
line shading  is  supposed  to  have  been 
employed.  Where  such,  however,  has 
been  used,  the  curved  surfaces  should 
logically  be  represented  as  at  "B,"  show- 
ing the  darkest  shading  near  the  edge. 
The  theoretical  method  of  curve 
shading  is  made  so  clear  by  Fig.  39,  that  no  further  explanation 
will  be  necessary.  An  unusually  poor  example  of  such  work  from 

a  plate  of  the  Mississippi  River 
Commission's  report  is  shown 
under  our  Fig.  40,  demonstrating 
to  a  certainty,  that  the  draftsman 
did  not  follow  such  rule  and  fur- 
thermore did  not  possess  the  re- 


Fig.  38. 


T 


Fig.  39. 
deeming  trait  of  being  able  to  space  his  lines  by  eye. 


Definite  rules   for  the  construction  of  graded  curve   shading, 
fair  examples  of  which  are  given  under  Fig.  41  and  on  plate  V. 
(Manhole-Section),    would     be 
difficult  to  formulate  and  could 
not  always  be  applied  success- 
fully ;  therefore  the  writer  will 
content   himself  with   giving  a 
few  concise  hints  relative  to  the 
subject  matter  for  the  guidance 
of  the  draftsman. 

Begin  ruling  the  light  side  of 
a  cylinder  from  the  edge 
towards  the  center  with  lines  of 
uniform  strength ;  place  the 
first  line  as  close  as  possible  to 
the  outline  proper;  increase 
spacing  of  the  lines  gradually 
at  about  the  rate  of  3  to  5  ;  keep 
on  increasing  spaces  until  near 
center,  then  stop.  When  ink  on 
lines  just  ruled  has  dried,  begin 
at  the  opposite  or  dark  side ;  Fig.  40. 

rule  a  line  about  three-fifths  the 
strength  of  the  shaded  outline,  as  near  as  possible,  leaving  just  a 


26 


If- 

5/de  Elevation. 


trace  of  a  white  space  between  the  two.  The  next  line  ruled  should 
again  be  about  three-fifths  the  strength  of  the  preceding  one,  with 
spacing  as  on  the  light 
space  a  trifle  wider  be- 
tween. Keep  on  in  this 
manner  until  no  more 
grading  of  lines  is  pos- 
sible, the  minimum  or 
outline  strength  of  line 
having  been  reached, 

when     a     similar     in- 

,         ,,.          ,  Fig.  41. 

crease    of    widths    of 

side  may  be  resumed.    End  near  or  at  the  center  line,  leaving  an 

open  space  against  the  other  side.    Carefully  watch  the  respective 

grading  and  spacing  of  the  lines, 
and  after  some  practice  this  shading 
may  be  done  quite  effectively. 

The  shading  of  cones,  where  frus- 
tated,   must   naturally   always  con- 
verge  in  the  imaginary  apex,  which 
Fig.  42.  should   be   placed   in   pencil   before 

beginning ;  a  preliminary,   which  many 

draftsmen    deem    superfluous,    and    the 

omission  of  which  will  always  be  notice- 
able.    In    shading    the    dark    side    with 

graded  lines,  care  should  be  taken  for 

obvious    reasons,    to   have   those    shade 

lines  tapering  towards  the  apex,  as  our 

Fig.  42  shows.    It  will  help  the  clearness 

and  also  improve  the  general   appear- 


Perforotea  topper  Svtrn 


Fig.  44. 


ance  of  the  drawing,  if  a  white  edge 
like  that  described  for  "  masonry  sec- 
tions" in  the  preceding  chapter,  is  left 
open    against    the    light 
side  of  the  ends  of  the 
curve   shading,  a  treat- 
ment which  all  illustra- 
tions accompanying  the 
present  chapter  have  re- 
ceived. 

Where  a  curved  por- 
tion adjoins  a  straight 
part,  as  for  instance 
shown  in  Fig.  43,  the 
best  way  to  proceed  is  to 
throw  in  the  shading  of 
the  former  with  the 
compasses  first,  and  then 
carefully  join  the  straight 
lines  afterwards.  The 
proper  manner  of  con- 
structing the  tapered 
arcs  is  set  forth  by  our 
Figs.  14  and  21,  which  ac- 
company the  chapter  on  outline  shading.  Fig.  44  illustrates  the  use 
of  pencil  guide  lines  to  insure  a  perfect  joint  at  the  points  of  tan- 
gent. It  sometimes  may  be  desirable  to  increase  the  shade  effect  of 
pipe  flanges,  for  instance,  in  which  case  freehand  shade  lines,  as  in 
Fig.  43,  parallel  to  the  flange  in  this  case,  may  be  judiciously 
placed. 


Side  Elevation. 


27 


As  the  draftsman  may  sometimes  be  pressed  for 
time,  and  some  curve  shading  should  nevertheless 
be  employed  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  handy  ex- 
pedient of  only  shading  curved  objects  on  the  dark 
side  may  be  resorted  to,  as  shown  by  our  illustra- 
tions,Fig. 45, and 
the  drawing  of 
the  D'Auria 
Pump  on  plate 
VI.  This  leaves 
the  eye  to  sup- 
ply the  missing 
shading,  and  an- 
swers well.  The 
little  flat  free- 
hand shading  on 


the  latter  figure 
used  sparingly 
helps  in  this  par- 
ticular case  to 
give  flat  effects 
against  the 
curved  portions, 
where  left  blank. 
Piles  may  be 
shaded  very 
neatly  freehand 
with  a  303  Gil- 
lott's  pen  in  the 


k 14" * 

Upper  Casting. 


iyBolt,l8"long 

Lower  Casting. 
Fig.  45. 


SECTION    A-B. 


HORIZONTAL    SECTION. 

A. 


Horizontal  Section. 
B. 


Fig.  46. 


28 


manner  shown  on  "  Standard  Pile  and  Trestle  Bridge/'  plate 
VI.  The  strokes  composing  the  shade  lines  should  be  made 
wavy,  so  as  to  represent  a  somewhat  rough  surface.  Where 
desired,  this  shading  may  also  be  executed  on  one  side  only. 

While  going  to  some  extent  into  details  for  shading  on  curved 
surfaces,  the  writer  would  employ  this  kind  of  finish  only  where 


clearness  demands  it,  or  where  it  is  essential  that  a  highly  finished 
drawing  be  produced.  He  would  certainly  deprecate  the  use  of 
curve  shading  in  connection  with  a  drawing,  where  the  essentials 
of  correct  drafting  are  so  flagrantly  violated,  as  on  Fig.  46  ''  A," 
and  would  only  use  it,  where  absolutely  necessary,  as  shown  in  the 
corrected  drawing.  Fig.  46  "  B." 


CHAPTER  VI.     SHADING  OF  INCLINED  SURFACES 


INCLINED  surfaces  are,  as  a  rule,  represented  by  parallel, 
evenly  spaced  lines ;  the  greater  the  angle  of  inclination  of 
any  surface  from  the  picture  plane  the  closer  the  spacing  of  those 
lines  should  be.  This  kind  of  shading  should  again  only  appear 
on  mechanical  drawings  for  special  purposes,  or  where  clearness 
demands  it. 

Inclined  light  surfaces  should  receive  light  line  shading,  while 
the  dark  inclined  spaces  should  be  ruled  by  lines  of  similar 
strength  as  the  shaded  outlines  defining  such  area.  This  is  suffi- 
ciently made  clear  by  the  illustration  on  plate  VII.,  where  in 
"  Plan  of  Invert  "  the  light  stepped-off  incline  shading  joins  the 


dark  curve  shading  and  vice-versa.  This  shading  has  to  be  very 
carefully  done  where  the  incline  becomes  tangential  to  a  curve, 
as  shown  for  instance  on  "  Hinge  Support  Casting "  on  same 
plate,  and  the  relative  spacing  can  here  be  determined  by  dividing 
the  total  inclined  or  curved  surfaces  into  equal  parts,  and  then 
projecting  those  points  from  the  elevation  to  the  plan.  The  suc- 
cessful draftsman  will  of  course  sooner  or  later  depart  from  the 
strict  rule  and  depend  solely  upon  his  eye  to  determine  the  proper 
spacing. 

Where  desired,  this  kind  of  spacing  can  be  sparingly  applied, 
as  in  the  case  of  the  curve  shading ;  that  is  to  say.  light  surfaces 


Mg.**^  ^_l£Qyerflow 

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P  --  -------^-'-v--  --  f*i  -  -.           t^-.--.  -j£ 

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w.so 


produced  through  gradually  decreasing  the  pressure  on  the  pen 
at  each  stroke,  as  in  making  mountain  slopes  (Fig.  47). 

The  nature  of  materials  with  which  such  slope  is  lined  may 

J& 


Fig.  47. 

may  be  left  blank  altogether,  as  the  plan  of  the  "  Funnel- 
Shaped  Spillway  "  on  plate  VI.  indicates.  The  plan  of  the 
"Reservoir  Embankment"  on  plate  VII.  shows  purely  freehand 
lines  parallel  to  top  and  foot  of  slope,  to  denote  a  rough  surface. 
Such  slopes  may  in  some  instances  also  be  indicated  by  tapering, 
wavy  strokes,  drawn  at  right  angles  or  radial  to  the  top,  and 


Fig.  48. 


sometimes  also  be  represented,  as  for  instance  "  riprap,"  which 
can  be  shown  by  a  symbol  similar  to  the  "  crushed  rock  "  section, 
closely  packed,  as  indicated  on  Fig.  48.  This  kind  of  work,  how- 
ever, is  closely  allied  to  a  subject  which  we  take  up  next  in  order. 


30 


CHAPTER  VII.     MAP    DRAWING. 


MOST  mechanical  draftsmen  are  at  some  time  or  other 
called  upon  to  execute  more  or  less  sketchy  maps,  a 
branch  of  work  which  cannot  altogether  be  styled  mechanical 
drafting.  The  writer  will  therefore,  in  the  following,  limit  him- 
self to  the  subject  of  "  sketch  maps  "  alone ;  once  proficiency  in 
such  work  is  acquired  however,  by  the  average  draftsman,  he 
will  be  able  to  produce  nearly  or  quite  as  good  work  as  a  regular 
map  draftsman  can  accomplish. 

Shaded  outlines  of  any  map  are 
essential ;  shade  rivers,  roadways, 
streets,  lakes,  etc.,  strictly  as  de- 
pressions, while  city  blocks,  build- 
ings, bridges,  embankments,  out- 
lines of  land  against  water  and 
similar  objects  should  be  treated  as 
projections.  The  freehand  shading 
of  coast  lines  should  be  done  punctiliously ;  half  or  quarter  strength 
shade  lines  should  be  used  at  their  proper  angle,  as  indicated  by 
Fig.  49. 

The  writer  has  deemed  it  expedient  to  give  under  Fig.  50  a 
few  useful  conventions  for  map  drawing;  they  may  of  course  be 


Fig.  49. 


Ra/lway?  in  operation. 

«3£g 

>  Surveyed. 


•  Highways. 
Trails. 

Contours. 
:^.—^=?—  Boundaries 


modified  to  suit,  but  on  the  whole  he  has  found  them  satisfactory 
in  almost  every  instance. 

The  necessary  outlines,  such  as  for  rivers,  creeks,  railways, 
city  blocks,  etc.,  should  be 
drawn  first ;  suitable  outline 
shading  is  then  placed  and 
the  lettering  put  on.  The 
style  of  lettering  to  be  used 
on  sketch  maps  is  de- 
scribed in  the  author's 
work  on  "  Lettering  "  and 
is  deemed  more  in  keeping  with  the  general  style  of  such  maps 
than  the  orthodox  Roman  and  Italic  letters.  The  subsequent  work 
will  consist  in  finishing  up  proper,  such  as  filling  in  of  mountains, 
water-lines,  etc. 

The  drawing  of  rivers  or  creeks,  where  denoted  by  a  single  line, 
should  be  done  tapering  in  a  direction  towards  the  source,  so  as 
to  end  there  with  as  finely  tapering  a  stroke  as  possible.  Where 
the  full  outlines  of  city  blocks  are  not  necessary,  as  for  instance  in 
map  of  "  Chicago  Business  Center,"  plate  VIII.,  the  shaded  sides 
may  only  be  indicated  in  outline.  Contour  lines  on  a  map,  Fig.  51, 


Fig.  50. 


31 


should  be  drawn  as  light  as  possible  with  Gillott's  lithographic  or 
mapping  pen.  When  contours  are  numerous,  it  is  advisable  to  ac- 
centuate every  fifth  or  tenth  line  for  the  sake  of  greater  clearness, 
as  illustration  shows. 

Water  ad- 
joining land 
may  very 
neatly  be  in- 
dicated by 
light  lines 
similar  to  the 
contour  lines 
d  e  s  cribed. 
D  r  a  w  the 
first  one  as 
close  as  can 
possibly  b  e 
done  all 
around  the 
land  por- 
tions. Follow 
with  the  sub- 
sequent 
ones,  finish- 


Fig.  51. 


ing  each  contour  completely  before  touching  the  next  one.  Ob- 
serve increase  in  spacing,  which  should  be  about  the 
same  as  advised  for  light  side  in  Chapter  V.  "  Curved 
Surface  Shading."  Take  care  to  have  water  lines  pass 
under  a  bridge  for  instance,  and  around  an  island  or  pier,  as  ex- 


emplified by  Fig.  52.  Closely  follow  at  first  the  shore  lines  into 

every  nook  and  corner ;  the  next  con- 
tours will  of  course  gradually  develop 
at  such  points  into  more  or  less  flat 
curves.  Good  examples  of  water-lines 
are  given  under  "  Map  of  Puerto 
Rico  "  and  "  Location  of  White  Pass 
F|9-  52.  and  Yukon  Ry.,"  on  plate  VIII. 

About  6  to  10  such  lines  will  be  found  amply 

sufficient  to  offset  the  land  neatly.    Such  work, 

when    properly    executed,    gives    an    excellent 

finish  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and  the  lines  suggest 

the  form  and  relative  spacing  of  actual  waves 

coming  shoreward.  It  requires,  however,  con- 
siderable practice  and  time.  When  it  is  desired 

to  expend  somewhat  less  time  and  still  attain  a 


500'      BOO'      1500' 


Fig.  54. 


Fig.  53. 

suitable  finish 
for  the  land  por- 
tions, they  may 
be  offset  against 
the  water  by 
adopting  the 
shore  -  hatching. 
By  this  method 
uniformly  short, 
evenly  spaced 
lines,  drawn  in  a 
direction  as 
nearly  as  pos- 


Point. 


sible  radial  to  the  curves  of  the  shore  line,  are  used.  Fig.  53  ex- 
plains the  principle  involved  very  well.  This  treatment  gives  a 
most  realistic  effect  on  an  indented,  broken-up  coast  line.  In  the 
map  of  the  "  North  Sea 
Countries  of  Europe,"  plate 
VIII.,  this  hatching  has  ex- 
clusively been  used  and  very 
well  serves  the  purpose. 

A  sandy  flat  coast  can  be 
offset  in  the  manner  shown 
on  Figs.  54  and  55.  In  the 
former  illustration  the  rows 
of  dots  are  placed  in  a  simi- 
lar manner  as  the  "  water- 
lines, "the  spaces  vvideningout 
inland.  The  sand  dunes  on  Fig.  55  are  treated  in  similar  manner. 

The  mountain  work  on  a  map  can  be  executed  by  a  fair  drafts- 
man in  quite  a  satisfactory  manner  after  some  practice  and  a  little 
attention  to  the  following  directions. — The  contour  lines  which 
are  to  determine  the  relative  length  of  the  pen-strokes,  should 
first  be  approximately  penciled  in  from  the  available  notes;  the 
strokes,  always  drawn  tapering  in  a  direction  downwards  from 
the  summit,  should  encircle  the  same  in  truly  radial  fashion,  as 
shown  at  "  A,"  Fig.  56,  a  drawing  of  a  peak,  circular  in  plan. 
Finish  all  around  between  the  penciled  contour  lines ;  afterwards 
join  the  next  row,  having  the  strokes  overlap  slightly  at  times 
rather  than  leaving  open  circular  spaces  between  the  different 


rows.    Draw  the  strokes  lighter  and  further  apart  in  each  subse- 
quent row. 

At  "  B  "  of  the  same  figure,  attention  is  drawn  to  the  curving 
outward  of  the  strokes,  which  indicate  a  projecting  slope  of  less 
incline  than  the 
a  d  j  o  i  n  g  ones. 
The  curving  out- 
ward of  those 


strokes  denotes 
the  slopes  at  the 
two  sides  of  the 
neck  thus  formed. 
At  "  C  "  the  con- 
tours to  be  fol- 
lowed in  the  fore- 
going are  shown. 
For  small  scale 
maps  mountain 
slopes  can  also  be  shown  with  well-tapered  single  strokes,  as  at 
'•  D,"  Fig.  56.  Fairly  good  examples  of  mountain  work  are  con- 
tained on  plate  VIII.  and  on  Fig.  n. 

Use  a  not  too  fine,  well-used  pen  to  execute  the  strokes  with. 
On  the  map  of  the  "  White  Pass  and  Yukon  Ry."  the  mountain 
work  is  treated  somewhat  sketchily  through  only  finishing  one 
side  of  a  hill  or  mountain  range  for  instance,  as  a  means  of  saving 
time  and  to  prevent  an  overcrowding  of  the  map,  the  whole  'of  the 
country  represented  being  quite  mountainous. 


Fig.  56. 


33 


CHAPTER  VIII.     CHARACTER  AND  FINISH. 


THIS  chapter  is  principally  devoted  to  supplement  the  sub- 
jects treated  upon  in  the  foregoing.  Thus  there  may  be 
cases,  where  it  is  desirable  to  add  sparingly  a  few  touches — 
features  which  in  the  preceding  chapters  have  not  altogether  been 
enumerated. 

In  the  instance  of  the  "  Masonry  Portal  of  Sewer,"  plate  IX., 
the  rock  face  of  the  stones  can  very  appropriately  be  denoted  by 
a  few  sketchy  freehand  strokes  against  the  light  side  of  the  wall, 
or  some  courses  of  brick  may  be  indicated  in  the  side  wall  of  the 
boiler  setting  of  the  "  Playford  Stoker  "  on  same  plate,  and  still 
not  interfere  with  the  clearness  of  the  drawing,  the  section-lined 
parts  standing  out  clear  against  the  background. 

The  few  sketchy  touches  upon  the  piers  of  the  "  Harlem  River 
Drawbridge  "  (plate  X.)  have  been  put  in  for  more  than  orna- 
mental purposes,  and  a  close  scrutiny  of  the  drawing  will  reveal 
in  a  way  the  nature  of  the  masonry  employed,  and  the  different 
methods  of  foundation  adopted  for  the  piers. 

Where  wood  in  elevation  is  to  be  distinctly  treated,  a  few  wavy 
strokes,  as  in  "  Sectional  End  Elevation  of  Caisson,"  plate  IX., 


Fig.  12,  and  on  plate  VI.  (Standard  Pile  and  Trestle  Bridge),  will 
in  the  former  instance,  answer  the  purpose  to  contrast  the  outer 
sheeting  as  "  wood  "  against  the  metal  plate  of  the  cutting  edge; 
when  it  is  overdone  to  such  an  extent,  however,  as  in  the  "  Caisson 
for  New  East  River  Bridge,"  plate  IX.,  it  will  tend  to  obscure  any 
distinction  between  the  parts  in  section  and  elevation,  and,  only 
making  matters  worse,  represents  simply  so  much  time  wasted. 
Pure  end  elevations  of  timber  should  receive  some  treatment,  and 
parts  of  rings  may  in  such  a  case  be  placed  in  a  sketchy  way,  al- 
though the  whole  area  to  be  desig- 
nated should  never  be  filled  in  com- 
pletely, as  the  illustration  just  men- 
tioned on  plate  VI.,  will  show. 

Such   treatment,   if  judiciously  ap- 
plied, tends  more  or  less  to  suggest  at 
a    glance    a    number    of    instructive 
details,  and  furthermore  enhances  the 
still    more    to    heighten 


Wood 


Metal  or  Stone 


Fig.  57. 

appearance    of    a    drawing.     In    order 

such    an    effect    the    breaks,    if    breaking    off    of    materials    has 


Hat  Bar. 


Ry.  Track  Rail. 


Double  Angle 


Channel. 


r 


. 


Round  Rod. 


Square  Rod. 


to  be  resorted  to,  should  also  be  made  to  suggest  the  nature 
of  such  materials,  and  even  their  shape.  Thus  wood  should,  as  a 
rule,  be  broken  off,  as  Fig.  57  shows,  so  as  to  contrast  with  metal 
or  stone.  In  Fig.  58  a  few  characteristic  specimens,  showing  a 

formation  of  breaks, 
suggestive  of  the  rela- 
tive shape  of  the  ob- 
jects, are  represented. 
The  consistent  follow- 
ing out  of  the  rule 
given  above,  results  in 
the  case  of  the  "  sewer  " 
on  the  same  figure, 
almost  in  a  perspective 
representation  of  that 
object,  which,  per- 
haps, would  be  car- 
rying the  point  too 

, mm    far-      The    collection 

V  A  given  here  can,  where 

[ y          ws///////v/>//t'/tj!tiyi&yyyiyi$* 

occasion  offers,  be  en- 
larged upon  by  the  in- 
dividual draftsman. 


I  Beam. 


ZBar. 


J 


Fig.  58. 


Sewer. 

The  elevation  and 
sectional  plan  of  the 
panel  point  of  a  bridge  span,  in  Fig.  59,  shows  without  a  word  of 
descriptive  matter  to  an  experienced  eye  the  shape  and  "make-up" 
of  the  different  members  composing  the  structure.  The  duplicate 
breaks  in  the  elevation  might,  of  course,  be  dispensed  with,  where 


4'Pin 
Side  Elevation. 


the  number  of  bars  or  channels  are  given  in  the  lettering  descrip- 
tive of  the  "  make-up." 

In  the  representation  of  a  tim- 
ber crib,  on  plate  X.,  the  isometric 
view  shows  how  ordinary  outline 
shading  may  be  applied  to  a  per- 
spective drawing — somewhat  at 
variance  with  the  outline  shading 
of  pure  plane  projections.  Here 
the  ends  of  the  timbers  are  for  ob- 
vious reasons  broken  off  in  a  very 
plain  manner. 

Sectional  Plan.  Rivets  for  metal  structures  are, 

F|S-  59-  as  a   rule,  left  unshaded,  except 

where  drawn  to  a  large  scale.  In  the  latter  case,  shading  may  be 
applied  after  one  of  the  fashions  shown  on  Fig.  60.  The  writer 
thought  it  unnecessary  to 
employ  any  code  for  the 
various  manners  of  rivet- 
ing, as  the  different  bridge 
and  construction  concerns 
have  each  formulated  a 
standard  of  their  own  for 
such  work.  Shading  of 
large  scale  bolt-nuts  may 
with  advantage  be  used,  as 


Rivets. 


shown  on  same  illustra- 
tion and  in  Fig.  61. 
On  assembled  drawings, 


j 


Screw 
Head. 


Shaded 

Outlines 

only. 


Rope 
or  Cable . 


35 


the  writer  some- 
trenie  of  showing 
plan,  as  represented 
outlining  only  the 
This  method  may  be 
where  effect  alone 
In  regard  to  Fig. 
the  rational  shading 
little,  if  anything, 
drawing  is  self-ex- 
"  full  "  shading  of 
threaded  screw  may 
especially  effective, 
ary  shaded  outline  is 
for  ordinary  pur- 
sub-caption 
the  square  threaded 
unshaded  threads 
stem  is  shown.  Here 
ing  in  the  threads 
correct  shape  in  re- 
straight  surfaces, 
shading,  as  shown 
"  shaded  full,"  is 
out  the  fact  that  thev 


3  / '"Test  Piece 


Fig.  61. 

are  in  plan  circumferential  to  a  round  stem. 


times  goes  to  the  ex- 
rivets  or  nuts  in 
again  in  Fig.  60, 
s  h  a  d  e  d  portions. 
r  e  c  o  m  m  e  n  d  e  d 
is  desired. 

62,  which  illustrates 
of  screw  -  threads, 
will  be  said,  as  the 
planatory.  The 
the  triangular 
be  recommended  as 
although  the  ordin- 
sufficiently  distinct 
poses.  Under  the 
"  threads  flat  "  in 
screw  the  effect  of 
against  the  shaded 
the  absence  of  shad- 
really  conceals  their 
presenting  them  as 
and  a  little  freehand 
above  under 
necessary 


Ordinary 
'Style 


For  showing  square  threads  at  a  smaller  scale,  the  ordinary  out- 
line shading,  of  course,  will  suffice.    Another  method  of  shading 

square  screw 
threads,  which 
is  not  shown 
here,  is  to  em- 
ploy convex 
line  shading,  de- 
scribed in  a  pre- 
ceding chap- 
ter— quite  a  te- 
dious piece  of 
work,  at  the 
w  hole.  The 
proportioning 
of  spaces  of  the 
pencil  guide 
lines  indicated 
on  our  illustra- 


Ordinary 
Outlines 


Triangular 
Thread. 


Conventional 
Symbol. 

(Pencil  Guide  Lines  are  Indicated  by 

Vertical  Dotted  Lines) 

F'g.  62 


Square 
Thread. 


to   bring 


tion  practically  suffices  for  laying  out  the  curved  outline  of  shading 
described  here. 

The  elevation  of  the  Columbus,  O.,  Freight  Station,  on  plate  X., 
demonstrates  finally  how  well  a  sketchy  method  of  treating 
masonry,  etc.,  adapts  itself  to  architectural  drawings.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  windows,  especially,  is  well  worth  studying. 


Cast   Iron. 


Malleable  Iran. 


Wrought  Steel. 


Copper. 


Lead. 


Zinc. 


Babbitt. 


Wires. 


Wrought  Iron. 


Cast  Steel 


Brass. 


Bronze. 


Glass. 


Rubber  or 
Vulcanite. 


Leather 


Asbestos 
or  Fiber. 


PLATE  I. 


Brick    Masonry. 


Rubble,  Coursed. 


$$&$$*< 
gssfe&s 


Gravel 
Concrete. 


Cinder 
Concrete. 


Rubb\e,  Uncoursed. 


Concrete,^  Rubble. 


Fire  Brick  or  Terracotta. 


Riprap. 


Expanded  Metal  Construction. 


Cement,  Mortar 
or  Plaster. 


Ashlar. 


Ordinary  Concrete. 


Monier  Construction. 


Asphalt  on  Concrete. 


PLATE 


Silt. 


Water. 


Gravel. 


Undefined. 


Mud. 


Earth,  Original. 


Earth,Filling. 


Puddle. 


Sand. 


Rock,  Amorphous. 


Clay. 


Gravel,  Mixed 
with  Clay. 


Marl. 


Rock,  Stratified. 


1 1 


Soapstone. 


Loam. 


PLATE 


Sandy  Loam. 


Quicksand. 


Clay  with  Hardpan  and 
Boulders. 


Hardpan. 


Hardpan  with  Cobbles. 


Sand, Loam  and  Boulders. 


Boulders  and  Cobbles  with  Sand. 


Fascines. 


Variously    Dimensioned  Wood  and  Timber  Sections. 


Pile. 


PLATE     IV. 


*w 

West  End. 

Borings  at  Fort  Lawrence  Dock, 
Amherst.N.S. 


60  ft  Marsh  Mud 


29ftTurfand  Hud 


ZVft.Red 
5andstone,ln- 
creasinqinHard- 
ness  Downwards. 


nft.RKtClaiprobcibly 
Boulder  Say. 


*-C2EE2: 


48  ft.  Soft 
Red  ffix/i. 


70  ft.  Softer 
ffedfxJr. 


Vft.RedMarl. 

Wft.Oray 
Freestone. 


Bore  Hole  at 
Suqor  Refinery.  Bormgat  Aulac. 

SECTIONS  Oh"  WELL  BORINGS. 


,  *— So" •;••••» 

__Jop__of  \W/Kt}ng  Conduit^    _  ttnuMf 

^ ^  ^  _         •      .<fc,  ^'fp/ . 

^^^^^^^^S^^^^^f^s^^;K  \ ' 


DfainCap- 


SECTION  OF 
COVERED 

FILTER-BED. 


MANHOLE  SECTION. 


PLATE    V. 


0'        l'        2'       3'       4'        5'       6' 


*B?     r  -«°e-L=^  \0Hftafmf\ 

TlU->  ' 


*  N^T      ^?«^V^1 


Vert-ical  Section  A-B. 
FUNNEL-SHAPED   SPILLWAY. 


Transverse    Section. 

STANDARD 
PILE  AND  TRESTLE   BRIDGE. 


PLATE    VI. 


0'  K>'          Hf          30'          «>' 


Section  of  Weir, 
Enlarged. 


-"        7  ' —  ?AL* 


H  .Concrete  Aprpn;  4O'#tclr 


RIO  GRANDE  CONCRETE  DIVERTING  DAM. 


PLAN 

OF 

RESER- 
VOIR 
EMBANK- 
MENT. 


Plan. 
HINGE  SUPPORT  CASTING. 


PI  an  of  Invert. 
DETAILS  OF  INVERT. 


PLATE    VII. 


Completed  Line 

Under  Construction:  •••- 

Proposed  Extension-  •••••••• 


MAP   SHOWING   LOCATION   OF 
WHITE  PASS  <$,  YUKON  RY. 


NORTH   SEA   COUNTRIES   OF    EUROPE. 


CHICAGO    BUSINESS    CENTER. 


Miles. 
MAP    OF    PUERTO    RICO. 


PLATE    VIM. 


EI.4BSS.4l 


Harf  Cross  Section.     Half  End  Elevation. 


Longitudinal    Section. 

PLAYFORD   STOKER. 


7'5"  ' 

Section  A-B. 


o 

Longitudinal  Section. 


CONCRETE  CHANNEL  AND  MASONRY  PORTAL  OF  SEWER. 


Sectionond  ElevationtmnsversetoBridqeAxis.showingBulkhead 
CAISSON,  NEW  EAST  RIVER  BRIDGE. 


Section  showmq  inside 


PLATE    IX. 


HARLEM   RIVER  BRIDGE. 


Enlarged 

Isometric  View 

Shewing    Fbrtion 

of  Top. 


Section  A-A. 


^  Stone  lap 


fit  /a 


Stme,  Ranqed  Random 


-~M°L. 


TIMBER   CRIB   DETAILS. 


End   Elevation . 

COLUMBUS  (O.) 

FREIGHT   STATION. 


PLATE    X. 


UNIVERSIT1 

CALIFO* 


VIVERSITY  OP  CALIFORNIA 
BOOK 


JUN  3    1956 

^3-1956  III 


VE  01973 


